Class Session IX>
1. Twenty Question Quiz>
10 questions on notes from class session VII
10 questions on notes from class session VIII
2. Defining the Environment
Over time, the meaning of the
term environment has changed. In order to understand the how the term
environment has changed over time, let's look at how the word
"environment" is defined in dictionaries from a number of time periods.
1882 The American Popular
Dictionary, which was first published in 1882, over a hundred years ago,
defined the term environment as "surroundings.
1940 In 1940, Webster's
dictionary gave a couple of definitions for the term "environment". # 1. act of environing, state of
being environed. # 2. that
which environs; the surrounding conditions, influences or forces, which
influence or modify. Webster's 1940 dictionary also refers to several different
kinds of environments, a biological environment, a social environment, the
physical or inorganic environment, a psychosocial environment, and the
biosocial environment. Webster also defines the term
"environmentalism" as emphasizing environment rather than heredity,
as the important, factor in the development of the individual or race.
1956 An environmental science
textbook published in 1956 titled "Our Environment - Its Relation to
Us" includes a number of "environmental" topics such as air,
fire, energy, water, rocks and soil. Interestingly, however, the term "pollution"
does not appear in the text. What does this tell us? Did the book authors not
know how to spell the word? Probably not, rather it indicates that pollution
was not a concept that people were generally aware of in the 1950's. Societies
were polluting the environment in the 1950's, in fact; we are still cleaning up
pollution in many places around the world from 1950's and before. Yet during
that time, we did not understand what pollution of the environment was.
1972 The American Heritage
Dictionary of the English Language defined the "environment" as the
total of circumstances surrounding an organism or group of organisms, a
definition similar to the one given 100 years previously in 1882 by the
American Popular Dictionary. However, The American Heritage Dictionary includes
a new term, the word "environmentalist". It defines an
"environmentalist" as a person who seeks to protect the natural
environment as from air and water pollution, wasteful use of resources, and
excessive human encroachments.
3. Environmentalism Emerges
The definition of
"environmentalist" includes a number of concepts which, previously,
had not been part of the meaning of "environment". These include:
1. the
need to protect;
2. the
"natural" environment;
3. two
kinds of pollution, air and water;
4. wasteful
use of resources….natural resources like water, energy and minerals, and;
5. excessive
human encroachments, which is another way of saying population.
Well something must have happened
between 1956 and 1972 that led to the inclusion of these new concepts in our
definition of environment and something did. Before we discuss what happened,
let's first look at concept #2, the "natural" environment. What is
the "natural" environment? One obvious answer is that the
"natural" environment is nature and, in fact, these two terms have
become synonymous. If a friend asks you "What are you doing this
weekend?" and you reply "I'm going out to commune with nature"
or "I'm going out to commune with the natural environment", these two
responses mean the same. So, the natural environment and nature, at least in
the way we use our language, are synonymous.
In fact, a quick check of the Cambridge
Online Dictionary http://dictionary.cambridge.org/
reveals two choices for the word environment, surroundings and nature. Under
nature, the definition of environment is given as the air, water and land
in or on which people, animals and plants live.
4. The Nature of Things
Close your eyes for a second and
think of nature. What do you see? Probably trees, green grass, a mountain in
the background, a gentle deer beside a meandering stream, and the sky up above.
What don't you see? Probably, other humans. Why? For
the most part, when we think of nature, we don't think of humans or human stuff
like shopping malls, the Internet, cable television, or
5. Are Humans “Natural”?
Does this mean that humans aren't
natural? For most of us, humans are "natural" beings. We are land
dwelling, air breathing, omnivorous mammals. Yet, at the same time, when we
think of "nature" we don't think of humans. Somehow, our language has
evolved this way, to recognize that humans are "natural" but, at the
same time, not part of nature. Did you ever hear anyway say after a big
snowstorm or hurricane when everything (human!) is not moving….there are no
cars on the road, no one goes to work, the stores are closed….."Isn't it
nice for nature, or Mother Nature, to be in charge for a while?" If you
have, think about what this means. This suggests that, for most of the time,
something other than nature is "in charge" or "in control".
Who? The answer, by the way we use our language, is humans. In fact, we have
two interesting and opposite terms in our language, "nature" and
"human nature". So, humans are "natural" beings yet, at the
same time, not part of nature, at least in the way we use language.
Now, let's go back to the
definition of "environmentalist”. An environmentalist is a person who
seeks to protect "nature" or "the natural environment" from
"human stuff" like pollution, wasteful use of resources and excessive
human encroachments. This notion of protection is a critical component of
environmental science.
6. And the Rest is History
Remember we said that something
must have happened between 1956, when a book on the environment didn’t have the
word “pollution” in it and 1972, when the term “environmentalist” appeared in
the English language. In the 60's, interest in environmentalism in the
Several other writers began
writing about environmental topics during the mid to late 1960’s and public,
and political, interest in environmental issues continued to grow. In the late 1960’s, a group of organizers got together and planned
a national environmental “teach-in” for April 22, 1970. This one day
celebration of the environment became the first “Earth Day” and some 20 million
Americans participated.
Politicians were quick to note
this new issue of concern to their constituents and, in 1970, passed the
National Environmental Policy Act, or NEPA as it is known. NEPA gave the
federal government the authority to set minimum standards for environmental
protection, which the individual states then were required to enforce.
To clear the air of air
pollution, Congress passed the Clean Air Act in 1970 and to stem the time of
water pollution, the Clean Water Act was passed in 1972. The United States
Environmental Protection Agency was established to administer these new
regulations. To control the flow of pollution on land, the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act was passed in 1976.
Since the early 1970’s many
pieces of environmental legislation have been enacted in the
1973 Endangered Species Act
1974 Safe Drinking Water Act
1974 Shoreline Erosion Control
Demonstration Act
1975 Hazardous Materials
Transportation Act
1976 Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act
1976 Toxic Substances Control Act
1977 Surface Mining Control and
Reclamation Act
1978 Uranium Mill-Tailings
Radiation Control Act
1980
1980 Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
1982 Nuclear Waste Policy Act
1984
1986 Asbestos Hazard Emergency
Response Act
1986 Emergency Planning and
Community Right to Know Act
1988 Indoor Radon Abatement Act
1988 Lead Contamination Control
Act
1988 Medical Waste Tracking Act
1988 Ocean Dumping Ban Act
1988 Shore Protection Act
1990 National Environmental
Education Act
1996 Safe Drinking Water Act
Amendments
7. Science and the Environment
Not surprisingly, societal
concern with protection of the environment led to the development of
environmental science. Environmental science is the discipline that is concerned
with identifying and diagnosing environmental impacts. Environmental scientists
first try to understand the patterns or impact or change in the natural
environment caused by various human activities. Once, they understand what is
occurring, environmental scientists then search for the specific cause or
causes. Often, they can also get involved in seeking solutions as well.
8. Solutions to Environmental Problems
While environmental science is
critical to understanding the impact of human activities on the natural
environmental, societies often turn to environmental policy, environmental
education, and environmental technology for implementing solutions. Both
environmental policy and education are concerned with changing human behavior.
Environmental policy does so in a more direct, or controlling, manner. The
Clean Air Act, for example, specifies the allowable levels of certain kinds of
gases which can be released by industrial facilities. Environmental education,
on the other hand, seeks to change human behavior in more subtle ways.
Educating the average consumer about the effects of air pollution from
automobiles, for example, may lead some individuals to change their behavior
and using less polluting forms of transportation such as walking, bicycle, or public
transportation.
Lastly, environmental technology
refers to solving environmental problems by using or substituting tools,
techniques, or processes that have less environmental impact. For example,
probably the most well known type of environmental technology is the catalytic
converter, which is attached to the exhaust system and neutralizes the gases
that are emitted by the engine when gasoline is burned or combusted. To solve a
specific environmental problem, societies often turn to environmental policy,
education or technology, or a combination of any or all of the three.
9. Environmental Science is Conservative
Since we’ve been looking at terms
and language, let’s look at another term that can have several meanings. The
term is conservative. The word "conserve" comes from the Latin "conservare", which means to preserve or protect the
status quo. Folks who are “liberals” or “radicals” are usually intent on
changing the way things are.
These terms, “conservative”,
“liberal”, and “radical” are usually applied in the context of politics or
economics. If a person is a political conservative that usually means that they
are opposed to changing the structure or the existing political system. An
economic conservative is one who supports what has become the dominant economic
system in the world, capitalism.
Both political and economic
“conservatives” typically view environmentalists as “liberal” or “radical”.
They often view protection of the environment as a cost or threat to the
existing dominant political and economic systems. But let’s dig a little
deeper. As we said, the word conservative comes from the Latin “conservare”. The word conservare
in Latin is derived from another Latin word, servare,
which means to preserve, save, keep, or guard. Conservare,
root of the word “conservative”, means the same as servare
but only stronger, sort of like turbo driven, if you will.
The word conservative or conserve
is also used in an environmental context. Land “conservation” efforts date back
well over 100 years in the
So, a case can be made that
environmental protection, and environmentalists, are also conservative. What
they seek to preserve or protect is not the existing political or economic
system, but a much older, and more complex, system. That system we call earth.
10. Environmental Science is Urban
Environmental science is
primarily urban based. About ten percent of the world's population lived in
urban areas in 1900. By mid-century, that figure had risen to
29 percent. At present, 45% of the world’s population
live in urban areas. By the year 2020, it is thought that about 60% of
the people on planet earth will live in urban areas. In addition, there was
only one city in the world in 1950 with a population greater than 10 million,
Though environmentalism is firmly
rooted in pristine natural areas, most of the environmental “loadings” as well
as impacts on human health from environmental issues occur in cities. So,
solutions to environmental problems must come from the cities as well. By the
way, environmental “loadings” refers to the total release of pollutants of from
all sources, air, water and land, as well as all kinds, biological, chemical,
and physical.
11. Environmental Science is Global
As we work through the course
material, we’ll see that environmental science truly has a global focus. While
many of the interactions between the sociosphere and
the earth’s other systems occur at a local level, for example, emissions from
your car in traffic on the Beltway, the cumulative effect of these emissions is
felt at the local, regional, and global level. Learning about environmental
science, because of its global nature, requires that we learn about other
cultures.
In order to assess human
cultures, it is important to try and be as objective as possible. Another way
to say this is to try and look at cultures without assessing and valuing
cultural activities in an ethnocentric way. To be ethnocentric
means to view and judge other cultures and societies according to the
assumptions of one’s own society. A non-ethnocentric approach, for
example, would seek to identify differences between groups of people without
judging one group as any better or worse than another, only different.
12. Environment Change & Pollution
There are different levels and
types of environmental impact, many of which will be covered over the course of
the semester. There are, however, two major categories of environmental impact,
environmental change and pollution.
Environmental change refers to
the unintended consequences of human activity that result in a change or
alteration of the natural environment. We know that humans have changed the
environment for a long time. Some of these changes are deliberate and intended.
Clearing grassland to plant crops is a deliberate alteration of the environment
and if the decision is whether to have food to eat or starve, or alter the
natural environment, this is a pretty easy decision for most, if not all,
humans to make. However, at the same time, there may be unintended
environmental impacts with clearing fields. Depending of the slope of the
ground, valuable topsoil may runoff into nearby waterways, thereby over time
making the field less productive for food and possibly choking waterways with
sediment... If the same crops are planted in that field year after year, that
plot of ground will lose many of its nutrients. This loss of nutrients is
considered to be unintended change. If techniques are not used to control soil
erosion, valuable topsoil may runoff the field, another unintended
environmental change.
Nature, however, operates in such
a way so that natural systems can be used and will replenish themselves as long
as they are not over-utilized. If that same field is left fallow, or unused,
for a period of time, the nutrients may be restored. Leaving the field unused
for a longer period of time, may help to replenish some of the topsoil lost.
Irreversible environmental changes can result, however, if the land is
continuously over-utilized, by human activity, thereby leaving the field
worthless to humans to produce food as well as permanently altering the
chemical or structural composition of the soil. The difficult part is finding
the right balance to use the field in such a way without permanently altering
its' natural components as well as providing a long term food. This type of
approach is known as a "sustainable" approach.
Over-utilization of natural
systems, that is to say, not using them in a sustainable way, is not the only
manner in which humans can impact the natural environment. The other way in
which humans impact the environment is pollution. Pollution refers to unwanted
solid, liquid, or gaseous chemicals produced as by-products or wastes when a
resource is extracted, processed, made into products or used. Pollutants don't
always have to be chemical in nature. Pollution can also take the form of
excessive heat, noise, light, or radiation.
Pollutants can enter the
environment naturally. Volcanic ash, for example, can be viewed as a
"natural" pollutant. Most natural pollution, however, is dispersed
over a large area and if often diluted or broken down to harmless levels by
natural processes. In contract, human generated or anthropogenic pollution
tends to occur where there lots of humans, such as in or near industrial areas
where large volumes of pollutants are concentrated in small volumes of air,
water, and soil. Some pollutants contaminate the areas where they are produced.
Others are carried by wind or flowing water far away from their original
sources.
13. Sources of Pollution
Some environmental pollutants
come from single, identifiable sources, such as a smokestack or sewer pipe.
These are referred to as point sources of pollution, because they come from a
single point or location.
Other pollutants enter the air,
water, or soil from dispersed sources called non-point sources. Examples of non
point sources include automobile exhaust, runoff of fertilizers and pesticides
from lawns and farms, and the flow of various sorts of chemicals and oil from
urban streets and parking lots into nearby rivers and streams.
14. Effects of Pollution
Pollution can have a number of
unwanted effects. These include:
1. Nuisance and aesthetic insult,
such as unpleasant odors and reduced atmospheric visibility;
2. Property damage, such as the
corrosion of metals, and the weathering building and monument materials;
3. Damage to plant and animals
life, for example decreased tree & crop production or harmful effects on
animals;
4. Damage to human health, such
as the spread of infectious diseases, respiratory system irritation and
diseases, genetic and reproductive harm, and cancers, and;
5. Disruption of natural life
support systems at local, regional, and global levels which would include
climate change and decreased natural recycling of chemicals as well as other
undesirable effects such as increased levels of ultraviolet radiation reaching
the surface due to deterioration of the ozone layer by chlorofluorocarbons and halons.
15. Severity of Pollution
Three factors determine how
severe the effects of a pollutant will be. They include:
1. Chemical nature of the
pollutant - how active and toxic it is to humans, plants and animals;
2. Concentration - the amount of
the chemical per unit volume of air, water, soil, and;
3. Persistence or longevity - how
long the pollutant remains in the environment in its harmful form.
Three Things That Happen to
Pollution
There are three ways in which
humans deal with pollution. Remember we stated, that pollution is the unwanted
solid, liquid, or gaseous chemicals produced as by-products or wastes, though
pollution can also refer to excessive heat, noise, light, or radiation.
The first way humans deal with
pollution is to create pollution, release it into the environment, and then, at
some point, decide to clean it up. This is known as pollution remediation.
Remediation of pollution can be extremely costly because materials or chemicals
are initially paid for and wasted and because removing pollution from natural
systems can be very expensive.
The second way in which deal with
pollution is to create it, and then capture or change it’s' form, before
releasing the remaining liquid, material or chemicals into the environment. This
is known as pollution control. Pollution control technologies include the
catalytic converter on your car and the carbon activated water filter on your
sink.
The third and final way in which
humans have learned to deal with pollution is pollution prevention. Pollution
prevention refers to providing the desired service or material good without
creating the pollution in the first place. An example of pollution prevention
would be switching to an organic, citrus based cleaner for your kitchen sink or
bathroom instead of using a caustic chemical. Of the three ways in which humans
deal with pollution -- remediation, control and prevention, pollution
prevention has emerged as the most preferred as well as often the least
expensive.
Review - Formula for Environmental
Impact
The formula for environmental
impact can be expressed as follows:
EI = Population X Consumption X
Technology
Env. Impact (Number of People)
(Amount of Resources Consumed) (Tools or Techniques Used)
While this formula is simplistic,
it is nonetheless a valuable tool for understanding the relationship human
activity and environmental impact.